LESSON-THREE
ERRORS
IN USING NOUNS
Errors in
the use of nouns can be classified conveniently under the following
headings: (1) errors in agreement with
verbs; (2) errors in the use of plurals; (3) errors in case.
This section
treats errors in agreement and in plurals; errors in case are treated under a
separate heading.
Errors in
agreement with verbs can be avoided by determining the noun or pronoun which is
the true subject of the verb and then determining whether it is singular or
plural. An important rule to remember is:
A verb
agrees with its subject in number and in person. If the subject (the noun or
the pronoun) is first person singular, the verb must be first person singular.
For example,
Chirnjibi is the coordinator. I am
the chairperson.
- Determining the Real Subject
The
following sentences illustrate the errors that arise when the true subject of
the verb is not determined.
Wrong A
box of apples are on the table.
Right A
box of apples is on the table.
(Right because the subject in the
sentence is singular ‘a box’. So the auxiliary verb ‘is’ agrees with the
subject.)
Wrong Agenda were not thoroughly discussed
in the meeting.
(Wrong because the word ‘agenda’ was borrowed from Latin. In old English
singular form the word is agendum and agenda was used as a plural form, but not
it is outdated.)
Right Agendas were thoroughly discussed
in the meeting.
Wrong He and I am very happy at the moment. (Wrong because we there are two
pronouns before the verb, so the subject of the sentence is plural. The
auxiliary verb ‘am’ does not agree with the plural subject.)
Right He and I are very happy at the
moment.
- Collective Nouns
Frequently
there are situations wherein two or more persons, objects, or ideas which are
otherwise singular combine to make a collective thought. For example, in the
sentence
Apekshya and Anjana at the same table
is unthinkable.
The
noun ‘Apekshya’ and ‘Anjana’ constitute a collective thought. Hence, the
singular verb ‘is’ rather than the plural verb ‘are’ is used.
The
important point to be noted is that the collective idea requires a singular
verb.
Wrong Soup and salad are too light a lunch. (Wrong because the words ‘soup and
salad’ represent a collective idea.)
Right Soup and salad is too light a
lunch.
Wrong Playing the guitar and singing
simultaneously are difficult.
Right Playing the guitar and singing
simultaneously is difficult.
- Subject joined by the Conjunction ‘or’ and ‘as well as’
When
two nouns or pronouns acting as the subjects of a verb are joined by the
conjunction ‘or’, the second noun or pronoun governs the choice of the verb.
For example,
Farsha or I am to shovel the snow.
They or he is to occupy the first
table.
The
reason for this rule is that the conjunction ‘or’ really makes two sentences.
The first sentence above, for instance, actually states
Farsha is to shovel the snow or I am
to shovel the snow.
Akhil
as well as his friends is going on a tour. Unlike in the previous sentence, the
first noun ‘Akhil’ governs the choice of the verb. Hence, we have to use a
singular verb.
Jeevan’s classmates as well as his
girlfriend have collected a sum of 5 thousand rupees.
- Pronouns ‘you’ and ‘we’
We
and plural you (but not other personal pronouns like I, he, she, it , you
(singular), they) can be put directly before nouns.
We men must respect women’s rights.
You girls should not underestimate
yourselves.
But
not
I woman know the importance of
women’s rights.
They guys are discussing an issue.
- Collective nouns in UK and US English
In
UK English, singular words like family, team, government, which refers to
groups of people, can have either singular or plural verbs and pronouns.
The
team is/are going to win.
Plural
forms are common when the group is seen as a collection of people doing
personal things like deciding, hoping or wanting. Singular forms are more
common when the group is seen as an impersonal unit. Compare:
My family have decided to move to
Pokhara.
(considering individual family member)
My family has decided to move to
Pokhara. (as a
whole)
Many
native speakers prefer who as a relative pronoun with plural forms, and which
with singular forms.
The committee, which is elected at
the annual meeting, is going to announce important changes.
The committee, who are hoping to
announce important changes, are pressed by the opponent party.
Some
examples of collective nouns.
bank committee government public the
BBC Nepal football
team jury school choir ministry staff
class family orchestra team club firm
party union
In
US English, plural verbs are rarely used.
- Countable and uncountable nouns
Countable
nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which can be
counted. We can use numbers and the article a/an with countable nouns; they
have plurals.
a
goat a newspaper four dogs two magazines
Uncountable
(or mass nouns) nouns are the names of materials, liquids, abstract qualities,
s, collection and other things which we see as masses without clear boundaries,
and not as separate objects. We cannot use numbers with uncountable nouns, and
most are singular with no plurals. We do not normally use a/an with uncountable
nouns though there are some exceptions. For example,
We
need a receptionist with a first-class knowledge of English. (knowledge (an
abstract noun) has been defined by an adjective ‘first-class’.
She has always had a deep distrust of
strangers.
The new child shows a surprising
understanding of adult behavior.
My parents wanted me to have a good
education.
You have been a great help.
My child needs a good sleep.
Can we have two coffees, please?
We have a selection of fine wines at
very good prices.
- Often we can make an uncountable word countable by putting ‘a piece of or a similar expression in front of it.
Wrong Shambhu never listens to an advice.
Right Can I give you a piece of advice?
Here
are some other examples of general/particular pairs. (Note that some words that
are uncountable in English have countable equivalents in other languages. )
Uncountable Countable
accommodation a place to live
baggage an
item/piece of baggage
bread a piece/load of bread
chess a game
of chess
chewing
gum a piece of chewing gum
chocolate a bar of
chocolate
corn an ear
of corn
dust a speck
of dust
equipment a piece of
equipment
furniture a
piece/article of furniture
grass a blade
of grass
information a piece of
information
knowledge a fact
lightning a flash of
lightning
luck a
piece/bit/stroke of luck
luggage a
piece/item of luggage
money a note; a
coin; a sum
news a
piece/item of news
paper a sheet
of paper
permission -
poetry a poem
progress a step
forward; an advance
publicity an
advertisement
research a piece of
research; an experiment
rubbish a piece of rubbish
soap a bar
of soap
slang a slang
word/expression
thunder a clap of
thunder
traffic cars,
buses, etc
vocabulary a
word/expression
wind a gust
of wind
work a job;
a piece; a stroke of work
Note
that when uncountable noun are used as plurals, their meanings can vary in
different contexts.
Excuse me, give me two papers. (newspapers)
My
friend, who is an author, has been famous because of the latest works. (books)
- Illnesses
The
names of illnesses are usually singular uncountable in English, including those
endings in –s.
If you have already measles, you
can’t get it again.
The
words for some minor ailments are countable: e.g. a cold, a sore throat, a
headache. However, toothache, earache, stomach-ache and backache are usually
uncountable in UK English. In US English, these words are generally countable
if they refer to particular attacks of pain. Compare:
I’ve got toothache. (UK)
I have a toothache. (US)
- Plural Nouns Misused as Singulars
Following
is a list of nouns that are always plural. While many of these nouns are
commonly misused as singulars by giving them singular verbs, they are plural.
Therefore, they require plural verbs.
annals nuptials snippers
ashes oats spectacles
billiards obsequies suds
clothes pants thanks
dregs pliers thongs
eaves pincers tongs
entrails proceeds trousers
goods remains tweezers
leavings riches victuals
lees scissors vitals
links shears wages
Wrong My
scissors is not very sharp.
Right My
scissors are not very sharp.
Wrong I
would like to buy a pant.
Right I
would like to buy pants/ a pair of pants.
- Singulars Misused as Plurals
acoustics hydromechanics phonics
aeronautics linguistics physics
alms magnetic pneumatics
analytics mathematics poetics
athletics means (wealth or way) politics
bellows measles spherics
comics metaphysics statics
dynamics molasses statistics
economics mumps tactics
esthetics news United States
ethics optics whereabouts
hydraulics phonetics
Right The
acoustics of the two buildings are sharply different.
Right The
athletics of the school are football, basketball, and volleyball.
Wrong The politics of the three brothers is
sharply different. (Wrong
because ‘politics’ in this sentence means political beliefs.)
Note: some of the above words can be
plural on rather unusual occasions. For example, some words ending in –ics
(e.g. politics, statistics) can also have plural uses.
What are your politics? But Politics
is a complicated business.
The unemployment statistics are
disturbing. But statistics is useful in language testing.
- Plural Same as Singular
Some
words ending in –s do not change in plural. Common examples:
Singular Plural Singular Plural
barracks barracks headquarters headquarters
series series works (factory) works
crossroads crossroads means means
species species Swiss Swiss
- Dated Words
Some
words borrowed from other languages are on the verge of extinction. These words
exist only in old dictionaries and old books. They are no longer used in modern
English. Some of the words are as follows:
accomplished well
trained
adieu
goodbye
agendum This word is a Latin word. Agendum is
the matter of business to be discussed,
especially at a meeting or a list of things.
albeit It is a conjunction. It is can be used
instead of the word ‘although’.
ale Ale
is used especially in trade names. It is a type of
beer, usually sold in bottles or cans.
alms This
word is always used in plural form. Its meaning is money, clothes, food, etc
given to poor people.
Amerindian Amerindian refers to Native American.
This word is no longer used in modern English.
asylum An asylum is a hospital for the care
of mentally ill people.
beanfeast It is also spelled beano. Beanfeast is
a happy celebration or party in the UK.
beauteous beautiful
beget When
you beget someone, you father him or her.
bloomer a
serious mistake
bounty Bounty is an uncountable noun. Bounty
is money which is given generously as a gift or
a reward.
breast(V) Breast something means to touch
something with one’s
breast.
chaff tease
or joke at someone
cobbler A cobbler is a person who repairs
shoes. In modern English, it is polite to say a
shoe maker.
deflower When you deflower someone, you break
her virginity. This word no longer is used in modern
English.
dice This
word is originally the plural of die, which is not now often used
in this sense; in modern English ‘dice’
is generally used as both singular and plural.
data This
word is originally the plural form of datum, which is not now used. In modern
English data can be used either as an uncountable
noun or as a plural with no difference of meaning. But some Indian grammarians
use it as a countable noun. For example, a data
shows….
duffer stupid
farewell goodbye
fish This word has a rare plural fishes,
but the normal plural is fish.
Foe enemy
game One
of the meanings of this word is ‘a person’s leg which is permanently injured.
Nowadays we
rather use other alternatives like lame (offensive), physically challenged or
differently abled, etc.
goose a
foolish person
gramophone A gramophone is a record player which
can be seen in old films.
jailer A jailer is a person who is in charge
of a prison or
jolly lively
mite very small
amount
prisoners.
A criminal
media This
word is originally the plural of medium. The plural expression the media
(meaning radio, TV, newspapers,
the internet…’) is now quite
often used as
uncountable noun with a singular verb.
motor a car
natty It
is an adjective. A natty dresser is neat and fashionable.
nay It
is an adverb. ‘Nay’ means more than that; and indeed.
obliged We feel obliged to express thanks or
making a polite request
pleasure You
are free to come and go at your pleasure. (desire)
rascal A dishonest and bad person, especially
a child who likes playing tricks.
retarded If a child is retarded, they are
slower in development than others.
scold to talk angrily to someone
spectacles This word has already been
old-fashioned. Instead of this word, we nowadays use
glasses.
trousseau Clothes and other possessions
collected by a bride to begin married life with
someone.
usurer an usurer is a person who lends money
at excessively high rates of interest.
unseemly not suitable behaviour
wondrous wonderful
zephyr a soft gentle wind
- Common Fixed Expressions
We
use ‘do’ in the informal structure do….ing, to talk about activities that take
a certain time, or are repeated (for example jobs and hobbies). There is
usually a determiner (e.g. the, my, some, much) before the –ing form.
During the holidays I’m going to do
some walking and a lot of reading.
Let your fingers do the walking. (advertisement for telephone
shopping)
Note
that the verb after do cannot have an object in this structure.
I’m going to watch some TV. (NOT I’m going to do some watching
TV.)
But
‘do’ can be used with a compound noun that includes verb+object.
I want to do some bird-watching this
weekend.
It’s time I did some letter-writing.
We
sometimes use ‘do’ in place of make, to sound casual about a creative
activity—as if we are not claiming to produce any very special results.
What shall we eat?—well, I could do
an omelette.
- Common Fixed Expressions
Do
good do harm do business do one’s best do a favour
do
sport do exercise do one’s hair do one’s teeth do one’s duty
do
40 mph
make
a journey make an offer make arrangements
make
a suggestion make a decision make an attempt make an effort make an excuse make an exception make a mistake make(a)noise make a call make money make a profit
make
a fortune make love make
peace make war make a bed make a fire make progress
- Typical Expressions (Informal)
Have breakfast/ lunch / supper /
dinner / tea / coffee / a drink / a meal
Have a bath / a wash / a shave /
shower
Have a rest / a lie-down / a sleep /
a dream
Have a good time / a bad day / a nice
evening / a day off / a holiday
Have a good journey / flight / trip
etc.
Have a talk / a chat / a word with
somebody / a conversation / a disagreement / a row / a quarrel / a fight
Have a swim / a walk / a ride / a
dance / a game of tennis etc
Have a try / a go
Have a look
Have a baby (give birth)
Have difficulty/ trouble in………ing
Have an accident / an operation / a
nervous breakdown
Note: US English take a bath / shower
/ rest / swim / walk.
Have can also be used to mean
‘receive’ (e.g. I’ve
had a phone call from Subhash.)
LESSON-FOUR
ERRORS
IN USING PRONOUNS
Errors in
the use of pronouns can be classified conveniently under the following
headings: (1) errors in agreement with verbs; (2) errors arising with the use
of antecedents; (3) errors in case; and (4) miscellaneous errors.
The basic
rules for agreement of subject and verb which were treated in the preceding
section on Errors in Nouns should be reviewed because they pertain to pronouns
also. Errors in case are covered under a separate heading. This section,
therefore, treats errors in agreement with verbs that pertain only to pronouns;
errors arising with the use of antecedents; and miscellaneous errors.
One of the
most important rules to remember in regard to errors in agreement of pronouns
serving as subjects is the one stated on previous page.
A source of
genuine difficulty in handling pronouns lies in the fact that some are always
singular; some are always plural; some may be either singular or plural. The
following discussion treats common errors in agreement of pronouns.
Relative pronoun
After
expressions like one of the…..singular and plural verbs are both used in
relative clauses beginning who, which or that.
Simran is one of the few girls who
has/have been crowned Miss Chelsea.
This is one of those horror books
that are/is read by everyone.
‘One
of’ is always followed by a plural noun.
One of the movies I have recently
watched is Titanic.
Strictly
speaking, a plural verb is preferred.
I.
Indefinite Pronouns
Pronouns
like everyone, all, someone, nobody, everybody etc are singular. In using these
pronouns, one must always be careful to make the verb agree, and the one must
also make any pronoun substituted for one of them singular.
Someone was shouting at
a beggar.
Everyone was praising the dancer.
Wrong Everyone accepted his/her
responsibilities.
Right Everyone accepted their
responsibilities.
(Right because everyone means all.)
Wrong Nobody was late, was he/she?
Right Nobody was late, were they?
This
singular use of they / them / there is convenient when the person referred to
could be either male or female (as in the examples above). He or she, him or
her and his or her are clumsy, especially when repeated, and many native
speakers of English dislike the traditional use of he / she / his in this
situation.
II. None, all, some—use of as Pronouns
The
words ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘some’, used as pronouns may be singular or plural,
according to their meaning.
Wrong All
I have left are a few books.
Right All
I have left is a few books.
(‘all’ represents, in essence, a
collective idea.)
Right Some
of the roof was torn away from the wall. (some as
uncountable pronoun)
Right
Some of the politicians are planning a reunion. (some as countable pronoun)
Right None
of my friends is overweight.
(formal)
Right None
of my friends are overweight.
(informal)
Right Neither
of us sings a song.
(formal)
III.
Antecedents
A
pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person. (The term
‘antecedent’ means the noun or the pronoun to which a later pronoun refers.)
Suman
is one of beautiful girls who have a sweet voice. (In this sentence, the
pronoun ‘who’ directly agrees with ‘girls’ not ‘Suman’. In other words, all of
the girls including Suman have a sweet voice. So the antecedent in the sentence
is ‘girls’. If an emphasis is laid on only Suman, we have to select a singular
verb.
Suman
is one of the beautiful girls who has a sweet voice. (In this sentence, we
place emphasis on only Suman.) Unlike in the past, in modern English, both
singular and plural verbs are accepted.
Wrong It
is I who is next.
Right It
is I who am next.
Right It
is me who am next.
(informal)
IV.
Yourself—yourselves
Both
pronouns are correct. When you address a second person, you might use one of
these two reflexive pronouns. If you are addressing only a one, use yourself.
But if you are addressing more than one, use yourselves.
Please serve a meal by
yourself.
Please solve the
problem by yourselves.
V.
Whose—its
In
days past, authorities did not permit the use of the pronoun ‘whose’ in any
instance where it did not refer to a person. Now, there is almost no opposition
to its use in many instances where its antecedent is an inanimate object.
This is a newspaper
whose circulation has risen rapidly.
(The antecedent of ‘whose’ is the inanimate object ‘newspaper.’)
This is the newspaper
the circulation of which has risen rapidly. (Rather formal)
This is the chair whose
two legs are cracked.
(Acceptable)
This is the chair two
legs of which are cracked.
(Very formal)
LESSON-FIVE
ERRORS
IN CASE
Many errors
in usage stem from a lack of knowledge of case. The term ‘case’ actually means
the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence. If,
for instance, a non or a pronoun is serving as the subject of a verb, it is
said to be in the ‘nominative case.’ If it is serving as the object of the
verb, it is said to be in the ‘objective case.’
So as to
comprehend case, one should remember three basic facts: (1) every noun and
every pronoun is in one of three cases—nominative, objective, possessive; (2)
the case of a noun or a pronoun is determined purely by its function; (3) the
so-called ‘rules’ for case involve simply the recognition of the function of
the noun or the pronoun.
Before one
can determine the function of nouns of pronouns, he must learn to divide
sentences into elements, for only in this way can he see function clearly. The
term ‘element’ means a natural grouping of words—usually the verb and every
word related to it.
The
following are the pronouns for the three cases.
Nominative Case Objective
Case Possessive
Case
I me my
you you your
she her her
he him his
it its its
we us our
they them their
who whom whose
1)
We often use object forms
in double subjects in informal speech.
Jeevan and me are going
canoeing this weekend.
Me and the kids spent
Saturday at the swimming pool.
‘Us’
is sometimes used as a subject together with a noun.
Us men understand these
things better than you men.
And
‘I’ is often used informally in double objects.
Between you and I, I
think his marriage is in trouble.
That’s a matter for
Amit and I.
2)
It is considered polite
to mention oneself last in double subjects or objects.
Why don’t you and I go
hiking for the weekend?
(NOT Why don’t I and you………….?)
3)
When a relative clause
comes after an expression like It is/was me/I, there are two possibilities:
Object
form + that (very informal)
It’s me that needs your
help.
Subject
form + who (very formal)
It is I who need your
help.
He who does not
socialize with others is avoided by other people. (Exists in old English)
The person who does not
socialize with other is avoided by other people. (modern English)
4) Gerunds—Modified by Possessive
A
‘gerund’ is the ‘ing’ form of a verb used as a noun, e.g., ‘running’,
‘swimming,’ ‘dancing,’. If the gerund is to be modified by a noun or a pronoun
(which really becomes an adjective in this instance), the noun or the pronoun
must be in the possessive case if it stands for a person.
Wrong Father
objected to Manisha singing.
Right Father
objected to Manisha’s singing.
Wrong We
were not impressed by him speaking softly.
Right We
were not impressed by his speaking softly.
LESSON-SIX
ERRORS
IN USING VERBS
The
principal errors in the use of verbs can be classified logically under the
following headings: (1) errors in agreement with subject; (2) errors in tense;
(3) errors in voice; (4) errors in mood; and (6) miscellaneous errors.
Errors in
agreement are treated under the section on ‘Errors in Using Nouns’. This
section treats the other principal classifications. To speak one’s English one
must be well conversant with the irregular forms of verbs. It is also known as
strong verbs. Below are listed the three forms, i.e., the principal parts, of
verbs most likely to present difficulty:
Present Past Past
Participle
beat beat beaten (beat in
the US)
bet bet, betted bet, betted
bid
(offer) bid bid
bid
(command) bade bidden
broadcast broadcast broadcast
(broadcasted
in the US) (broadcasted in the US)
burn burnt,
burned in the US burnt, burned in
the US
bust bust,
busted (US) bust, busted
(US)
dive dived,
dove (US) dived
dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed
dwell dwelt,
dwelled dwelt, dwelt
forecast forecast, forecasted forecast,
forecasted
get got got, gotten
(US)
hang (kill someone) hanged hanged
hang (to fasten) hung hung
input input,
inputted input, inputted
kneel knelt,
kneeled knelt, kneeled
lean leaned,
leant lean, leant
leap leaped,
leapt leaped, leapt
learn learned,
learnt learned, learnt
let let,
letted let, letted
lie lay,
lied lain, lied
light lit,
lighted lit, lighted
mow mowed mown, mowed
plead pleaded,
pled (US) pleaded, pled (US)
prove proved,
proven (US) proved, proven (US)
saw sawed sawn, sawed (US)
sew sewed sewn, sewed
shear sheared shown, showed
sow sowed sown, sowed
speed sped, speeded sped, speeded
spit spat,
spit (US) spat, spit
(US)
stink stank,
stunk (US) stunk
strive strove,
strived striven, strived
swell swelled swollen, swelled
weave wove, weaved woven, weaved
wet wet,
wetted wet, wetted
Shifts of Tense
Many
non-native speakers of English cannot maintain consistency in their use of
tense; they must be very careful while shifting tense.
Wrong: I told my
teachers that I will be a good citizen.
Right: I told my teachers that I would be a
good citizen. (Right
because I am talking about the past action.)
Wrong: I should have liked to have heard Sabin
Rai sing. (Wrong
because the two present perfect constructions create a conflict that cannot be
resolved.)
Right: I should like to have heard Sabin
Rai sing. (Right
because action of ‘liking’ is now present, thereby preventing a conflict that
cannot be resolved.)
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