FOREWORD
English,
like all human languages, is full of problems for the foreign learners. Some
problems are easy to explain and understand. Other problems are tricky and
cause difficulty even for advanced students and teachers. English as a Foreign Language,
to a degree, is a guide to problems of this kind and aims at digging out
underlying blunders. Also, this book will provide the readers with grammatical
information at various levels, ranging from relatively simple to quite advanced
problems. Teachers of English are all too conversant with the teaching of the
language showcasing structures, patterns, syntax, phonemes, etc. Nonetheless,
it is now realized that grammar has a place in the language learning process,
without which there is a vacuum in the teaching of the language. In view of
this, there is an increasing demand of teachers of English with a good
knowledge of grammar and practical usage where the English language is a second
language.
If someone
makes too many mistakes in a foreign language, he or she can be difficult to
understand, so a reasonable level of correctness is important. However, it is
not essential to speak or write a language perfectly just so as to communicate
effectively. But a teacher who teaches a foreign language, in my opinion, is
expected to avoid mistakes as far as possible, but shouldn’t be obsessed with
correctness. Yes, grammar is the backbone of any language. So, grammar in
natural contexts over a time is better than force-feeding. There is a
widespread rumour that the standard of English at private schools is going
downhill on account of the inefficiency of teachers who teach very young
children. Teachers alone aren’t responsible for it.
The book
encompasses Language Terminology, The Most Common Mistakes in English Usage by
Nepalese Teachers and Students, Tips on English Pronunciation, Teaching
Writing, Teaching Speaking, The Difference between British and American
English, Some Creative Teaching Techniques, etc.
We teachers
believe that teaching a second language is challenging and difficult. We,
therefore, are always on the lookout for ways in which a collective, concerted
effort is made to discuss and tackle language problems.
English as a Foreign Language is
intended for aspiring teachers, students of all level and especially those teachers
who teach young children because they can play a remarkable role in improving
students’ language proficiency, and identifying and nurturing the talents of
individual students at an early age. I arrived at the decision of writing this
book only after consulting some of the English language specialists and
authentic books written by the native experts of English. The book, I reckon,
is to be fruitful. This book is an endeavor to sharing practical ideas but not
an intensive training or a complete guide to the English language.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My first and
the foremost gratitude goes to my most loving mother who endured lots of pain
to bring me and my brother up as father was indifferent to family condition, my
dear chema, Bhim Rani Tigela (mother’s sister) and sanaba (Laxmi Tigela) who
reside in the UK; whose constant financial and emotional supports have put me
where today I am. I am also grateful to
my wife Srijana Rai for her indirect help.
I must also
thank British teachers Mrs Simmons (international co-ordinator at Sherwood
School, the UK), Mrs Mathuru (specialist in the English language) and Mrs
Holliday (in charge of English) for their valuable advice and brilliant ideas. Printing
errors if any are inadvertent and regretted. Your constructive suggestions,
comments, and feedback are most welcomed which will have a great influence on further
writing.
Last but not
least, Subhash Thapa Magar, Dipesh Dulal, Madan Tamang and John Kesner deserve
my hearty thanks for encouraging me to write it.
And my
heartfelt thanks to Mahesh Chapagai, who is studying in Japan, for his constant
encouragement and inspiration.
I must
mention reference works that I consulted and pay homage to in order to be safe
from plagiarism: Practical English Usage,
by Michael Swan (Oxford University Press 2005), English Collocation in Use, by Michael McCarthy (Cambridge University
Press 2005), The Most Common Mistakes in
English Usage, by Thomas Elliott Berry (Tata McGraw-Hill Edition 1976), Cambridge IELTS 8 (Cambridge University
Press 2011), Longman Essential Activator
(Addison Wesley Longman Limited 2000), Vocabulary
Workshop Enhanced Edition, by Jerome Shostak (Sadlier-Oxford 1996), Language in Use, by Adrian Doff &
Christopher Jones (Cambridge University Press) Cambridge School Dictionary (Cambridge University Press 2008) and English for the teacher, by Mary Spratt
(Cambridge University Press 2004).
Amar
Bahadur Sherma
Editor-in-Chief,
Writers’ Diary
Vice-president,
Sustainable Education Group-Nepal
ELT at GEMS, freelance writer
CONTENTS
LESSONS PAGE NO.
I) Introduction
to Language 5-10
§
What
is Language? 5
§
Language
as Action in Context 5
§
Glossary 6
§
What
is grammar? 7
§
Parts
of Speech 8
II) Most Commonly Confused Words 11-44
§
Self-Test 43
III)
Errors in Using Nouns 45-47
§
Determing
the Real Subject 45
§
Collective
Nouns 46
§
Subject
Joined by Conjunctions ‘or’ and ‘as well as’ 46
§
Pronouns
‘you’ and ‘we’ 46
§
Collective
Noun in UK and US English 47
§
Countable
and Uncountable Nouns 48
§
Illness 50
§
Plural
Nouns Misused as Singulars 50
§
Singulars
Misused as Plurals 51
§
Plural
Same as Singular 52
§
Dated
words 52
§
Common
Fixed Expressions 55
IV) Errors in Using
Pronouns 58-60
§
Relative
Pronouns 58
§
Indefinite
Pronouns 58
§
None,
all, some—Use of as Pronouns 59
§
Antecedents 59
§
Yourself—Yourselves 60
§
Whose—Its 60
V) Errors in Case 61-62
VI) Errors in Using
Verbs 63-65
§
Forms
of Verbs 63
§
Shift
of Tense 65
§
General
Truth 65
VII)
Errors in Miscellaneous Areas 66-99
§
Elision 66
§
Prepositional
Phrases 67
§
News
Vocabularies 74
§
Keywords 81
§
Sounds
of Animals 82
§
Food
Preparation 83
§
Sounds
of Objects 83
§
Famous
English Idioms 84
§
The
Structures of Tense 85
§
Correct
Use of ‘Other’ 86
§
Verbs
Followed by ‘to’ 87
§
Verbs
Followed by ‘-ing’ 88
§
Verbs
Followed by ‘to’ and ‘-ing’ 88
§
Avoidance
of Repetition 88
§
Subject-Verb
Agreement 89
§
Mental
Verbs 90
§
British
and American English in Practice 91
§
The
Difference between US and UK English 92
§
Describing
People 94
§
Choosing
Right Words for Right Persons 96
§
Actions
Expressing Emotions 98
VIII)
Collocation 100-6
§
The
Most Frequently Mispronounced Words 106
IX) Creative Teaching
Techniques 107-112
X) Reinforcements 113
Vocabulary Test 114
Self-Test Key 115
LESSON-ONE
INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE
“Good noise means
learning. Bad noise means the children are out of control. No noise means
adults don’t understand the nature of children.”
Dr
Harlen Hansen University of Minnesota
What is Language?
Language is
a system of communication with the ‘means’ of verbal symbols. Basically, by the
term ‘language’ we mean the human language, which is specific to the human
species and is characterized by uniquely human features: the human ‘verbal’
language is different from the limited means of communication among animals and
also from the other non-verbal code system of communication among human being
themselves. Besides many other features, the human verbal language is manly
characterized by structural ‘complexity’ and functional ‘diversity’ to the
extent that there is no limit to the depth and breadth of its study. The
‘human’ language has many uniquely human characteristics like creativity, complexity,
arbitrariness, specialization, displacement, cultural transmission,
discreteness, reflection, change, etc.
Language as
Action in Context
Language is
a skill. It is a device or weapon that human beings use to have things done.
The branch of linguistics called pragmatics (the study of how language is used
in specific context) sees langue as action. It regards utterances as ‘speech
acts’. This idea is intended to ‘do’ something. The act of uttering is called
‘locution’ and the act intended to be carried out is called ‘illocution’.
The speech
act is governed by many factors of the context in which it is used. When
speakers speak, they intend to have something done in what we call the
linguistic marketplace. They use language to carry out functions like describing,
explaining, amusing, criticizing, passing judgments, delivering opinions,
promising, agreeing, greeting, etc. Thus, all utterances are goal-directed
actions or ‘speech acts’, and language is action (two kinds of action at the
same time: the action of uttering and the action of accomplishing a purpose).
The basic
function of language is that of naming objects or ideas. Naming is a way to get
control, to exercise power. Describing and defining is also to take control
over things. Language can also be used to describe itself: that is called
metalingual use of language, or metalanguage. The other functions of asking,
commanding, promising, and expressing opinions are also actions carried out
with specific goals in specific contexts.
When
language is used, it is always used in a context. The act of language use (and
of the goal to be achieved) is influenced by the conditions of the context
which include who the addresser and addressee are (status, relation, age, sex,
belief, etc), what the channel is (face-to-face, telephone, writing, etc), what
the topic is, and other factors like social and physical circumstances. The
selection of the appropriate alternatives under a particular context makes the
set of choices a variety of language. The whole of a language can be seen as
the totality of the range of varieties and choices. From the linguist’s point
of view, any language is a collection of varieties which differ according to
the governing factors of the context. All utterances are ‘acts’ governed by the
context.
GLOSSARY
One
simple sentence that has been split into two clauses to focus on one part of
it. For e.g., The book was written in
2008. It was in 2008 that the book was written.
Leaving
out a word or phrase completely. Who is coming to your home this evening? ‘My cousins’. Coming is ellipted.
Moving
an element of a sentence to the beginning for emphasis, particularly an element
that does not usually appear at the beginning. For e.g., On the left of the aisle was a flower pot.
A
form of verb which is the same as the infinitive without to/ to convey
necessity. For e.g., The judge insisted
that each client pay his own costs. (US English)
It
is a common fault in many students and teachers whose first language isn’t
English. Re-stating an idea either by closely following one word by another
with the same meaning or with a word whose meaning is already encompassed
within the broader definition of its mate. For
example, Rekha saw a big, enormous ship in the sea. Ritesh made a new
invention.
The
combination of words formed when two or more words are frequently used together
(fixed) in a way that sounds natural. For
example, a big mistake not a large mistake. Likewise, do a bit of travelling
not make a bit of travelling.
A
short form in which a subject and an auxiliary verb, or an auxiliary verb and
the word not, are joined together into one word. Contractions are also made
with non-auxiliary be and have. Examples:
I’m, who’ve, can’t, etc.
A
sentence which logically can have two meanings.
The problem with the ambiguity is
to try to determine the meaning intended by the user. For example, Mrs Tamang told her sister that she must
study harder.
WHAT
IS A GRAMMAR?
Grammar is
the study or science of rules for forming words and combining them into
sentences.
- Orthography
It
studies spelling. Apple (a-p-p-l-e) mother
(m-o-t-h-e-r)
- Etymology
It
studies words and their meanings.
He she fountain garrison affection
- Syntax
It
studies the arrangement of words in a sentence.
- Prosody
It
studies verse and prose in a poem.
- Letter
Letter
is a written or printed sign representing a sound used in speech.
- Alphabet
Alphabet
is a set of letters in a fixed order used in writing. There are two types of
letters: vowel and consonant.
A
vowel is a letter used to represent a speech-sound made without audible
stopping of the breath. For example, a,e, i, o, u.
Vowels
are of two kinds.
a)
Monopthong
is a single sound. (pen, book, king, ink)
b)
Dipthong
is a union of two vowel sounds. (five, doubt, nose, ear)
A consonant is a letter for the
speech-sound produced by a complete or partial stoppage of the breath. (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t v,
w, x, y, z)
A syllable is any of the units into
which a word may be divided, usually consisting
of a vowel-sound with a consonant
before or after. For example, fan, ac.tor, but.ton
- Stress
A
stress is the result of an extra force used in speaking a particular word or
syllable.
PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of
speech are words that are divided into different kinds according to the work
they do in a sentence.
The parts of
sentence are eight in number.
a. Noun
A
noun is a name of a person, place, animal, thing and some ideas. For example,
Anjana, David, Japan,
Sherry, table, desk, pity, education, neighbourhood, fantasy etc.
Anjana
is a person’s name, Japan is a country’s name, Sherry is an animal’s name, desk
indicates the name of a thing, pity indicates the name of some ideas, etc.
b. Adjective
An
adjective is a word that defines or limits a noun. For example,
Kabita is a tall girl.
(‘tall’ in the sentence defines how Kabita is.)
Ripe
grapes are sweet. (‘ripe’ and ‘sweet’ are two words which give the quality of
grapes.)
c. Pronoun’
A
pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. For example,
Mohan is
speech-impaired, so he cannot speak. (‘he’ has been used instead of Mohan.)
Srijana
and Sujata are friends; they live together. (‘they’ has been used instead of
Srijana and Sujata.)
d. Verb
A
verb indicates doing, being, and becoming of somebody or something. For
example,
We cook meals. (‘cook’
indicates an action.)
Tuleshwor digs a hole.
(‘digs’ in the sentence indicates an action.)
Aslesha
and Aisharya are doctors. (‘are’ indicates becoming or state’.
e. Adverb
An
adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. For
example,
Gopal speaks English
well. (The verb has been modified by well.)
Students cried loudly.
(The verb cried has been modified by loudly.)
Santosh ran very
quickly. (The adverb has been modified by another adverb very.)
f. Preposition
A
preposition is a word often placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate place,
direction, source, method, etc.
There is a cat under
the bed. (The word under indicates place.)
Amar walked towards
church. (The word towards indicates direction.)
A mango fell from the
tree. (The word from indicates source.)
Bisika went to Hong
Kong by plane. (The word by indicates method.)
g. Conjunction
A
conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences. For example,
Srijana and Amar are
husband and wife.
Durga is wise but his
son is stupid.
Either sing a song or
dance on stage.
The
words ‘are’, ‘but’ and ‘or’ have been used as joining words or connectives.
h. Interjection
An
interjection is a word used as an exclamation. For instance,
Alas! She is dead.
Hurrah! I won the game.
Hush! Don’t speak like
this.
The
words ‘Alas’, ‘Hurrah’ and ‘Hush’ give a sense of exclamation.
